PIAGET , KOHLBERG AND VYGOTSKY : CONSTRUCTS AND CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES

PIAGET , KOHLBERG AND VYGOTSKY : CONSTRUCTS AND CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES

 

All persons go through various stages of development and learning during their lives . The major areas of development are cognitive ( obtaining knowledge through thoughts , experience and the senses ) , moral ( concerned with principles of right and wrong behaviour ) and socio – cultural ( relating to the arts , customs and institutions of society ) . To understand these developments , psychologists and educationists have described the various stages of development in their theories.

5.1 Theories of Development :

Three such psychologists have given the most well – known theories . They are

Jean Piaget ( 1896-1980 ) ” This Swiss psychologist stated his cognitive theory of development of children in 1936. ”

Lawrence Kohlberg ( 1927-1987 ) ” This American developmental psychologist stated his theory of moral development of children in 1958. ”

Lev Vygotsky ( 1896-1934 ) ” This Russian psychologist gave his theory of human cultural and bio – social development ” .

 

 

5.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development :

The term ‘ cognitive ‘ is related to a person’s consciousness of his mind , which makes him active . Cognition includes activities like reasoning and thinking . Piaget observed the intellectual abilities of children and adolescents , finding that children think in a different way from adults . The three components of Piaget’s theory are as follow

Schemas :

A schema is a systematic pattern of thought or behaviour . For instance , while solving a puzzle or problem involving logical reasoning , a child will organise its knowledge and past experience with its thinking to solve it . The ideas that occur to the child during the process of solving the problem are known as ‘ schemas ‘ .

Piaget defined a schema as a ” cohesive , repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning ” . He said that a schema helps the child to understand any situation and respond to it .

Stages of Adaptation :

Adaptation is a process of getting familiarised with the world . The stages of adaptation are the stages of intellectual development which occur due to this adaptation process . These stages are as follows

1. Assimilation This means absorbing something into the present schemas .

2. Accommodation This means changing the ways of thinking and actions for managing objects .

3. Equilibration / Disequilibration Equilibration takes place when a child’s schemas can deal successfully with the present information given through assimilation .

This provides motivation for the child’s development . However , a disequilibration occurs if new information cannot be dealt with successfully with the existing schemas , Such a new situation will cause disequilibrium .

Stages of Development :

Piaget suggested that children understand the world around them by adjusting their ideas when they find differences between what they know and what they discover . This means that cognitive development of the child comes before learning takes place . He stated that children go through the following four stages of cognitive development .

 

1. Sensori – Motor Stage ( birth – 2 years ) :

* Infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulation of objects , not through thinking . At this point in development , a child’s intelligence consists of its basic motor i.e. due to movement ) and sensory ( i.e. through eyes , ears , mouth , nose and touch ) explorations of the world .

* Piaget said that , developing the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen , was an important element at this point of development of a child .

* By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of individual perception , children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects .

 

2. Pre – Operational Stage ( 2 years – 7 years ) :

* Children learn through pretence and play but are still not logical thinkers . For instance, an adult might take a lump of clay , divide it into two equal pieces with different shapes , and then give a child at this stage of cognitive development a choice between which piece to play with .

* The adult has rolled one piece of clay into a compact ball while the other is flattened into the shape of a chapati . Since the chapati shape looks larger , the child will most likely choose that piece , even though the two pieces are exactly the same size .

* In this stage , children remember objects and happenings and their thinking becomes more imaginative and centred on themselves . Concepts formed are crude but not easily changed afterwards .

* Their vocabulary increases from about 200 words at 2 years to about 2000 words at 7 years . They also believe that inanimate objects like toys ( dolls , for instance ) have feelings and emotions .

 

3. Concrete Operational Stage ( 7 years – 11 years ) :

* Children begin to think more logically , but their thinking may be very rigid . They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts . At this point , children also become less centred on themselves and begin to think about how other people might think and feel .

* They also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that others need to share their thoughts , feelings and opinions . They start solving mathematical problems by using , for instance , building blocks , their fingers etc.

* They solve visual problems better than verbal ones Imagination of the previous stage is replaced with actual facts . Experimentation for learning of the previous stage is replaced by wanting to use rules for learning .

 

4. Formal Operations Stage ( 11 years 15 years and above ) :

* This final stage involves an increase in logic , the ability to use deductive reasoning and an understanding of abstract ideas . At this point , children become capable of seeing more than potential solution to the same problem and think more scientifically and logically about the world around them .

* They can do mathematical calculations and think creatively . They start introspecting ( i.e. examining their own thoughts and feelings ) and thinking about their roles in society .

Piaget considered that children’s intellectual development is a process in which they do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older , but that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually progress through these four stages . Thus , a child at the age of seven doesn’t just have more information about the world than he did at the age of two ; there is also a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world . s about the world .

 

5.1.2 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development :

Kohlberg worked further on Piaget’s theory by explaining the development of moral reasoning in children as well as adults . He identified three stages of moral development which are as follows

Pre – conventional Level :

Stages I & II are combined to form this level , during which morality is externally controlled . This is usually at the primary and elementary levels in school .

1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation Children at this stage of moral development will follow rules to avoid punishment by adults . The worse the punishment for the act is , the more ‘ bad ‘ the act is understood to be . An instance of such behaviour is that if a child’s classmate asks the child to avoid going to school and go playing with him . The child refuses to skip school because he knows that he would get punished .

2. Self – interest and Reward Orientation In this stage , correct behaviour is understood as whatever the child believes to be in its best interest , but does not consider its reputation or relationships to groups of people . Thus , children follow rules to get the rewards they are expecting for obedience to rules . An instance is when a child is asked by its parents to go from home to a nearby shop to buy something and offer the child an incentive by giving it some additional money ( e.g. for buying toffees for himself ) to compensate . Thus , the child is motivated by self – interest to do this work .

 

Conventional Level :

Stages III & IV are combined to form this level , during which morality is characterised by an acceptance of society’s conventions concerning right and wrong . This is at the ages of adolescence and young adulthood .

1. Good boy or Good Girl Orientation Persons at this stage try to conform to social standards . They are receptive to approval or disapproval from others , as it reflects society’s views . They try to be a good boy ‘ or ‘ good girl ‘ to live up to these expectations because they have learned that being regarded as ‘ good ‘ benefits them . They may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences on their relationships with others , which now begin to include qualities like respect , gratitude etc.

2. Law and Order Morality At this stage , persons understand that it is important to obey laws and social conventions because they are important in proper functioning of society . Thus , this goes beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three .

A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong . Accountability is thus a significant factor at this stage , as it separates the ‘ bad ‘ from the ‘ good ‘ persons . Most active members of society remain at stage four , where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force .

 

Post – Conventional Level :

Stages V and VI are combined to form this level ( sometimes also called the principled level ) , during which morality is controlled by the individual’s own perspective , which may be preferred over society’s view . Thus , individuals may even sometimes disobey rules which do not match their own principles .

1. Social Contract Orientation The world is viewed as holding different opinions , rights and values by persons who reach this stage of moral development . Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid rules .

The thinking at this level is that those laws which are not welfare oriented should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people . This is achieved through majority decisions and , usually , reaching a compromise . Democratic government is based on such reasoning .

2. Universal Ethical Principle Orientation At this stage moral reasoning based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles . Laws are valid only if they are justified , and may be disobeyed if they are unjust .

Legal rights are unnecessary , as social contracts are not essential for moral action . Decisions are reached by the person imagining what he would do in another person’s place if he believed what that other person believed . In this way , any action is never a means to fulfil an end , but is an end in itself .

The individual acts because it is right , and not because it avoids punishment , is expected , is legal , or has been previously agreed upon . However , very few people reach this stage of moral development in life .

 

5.1.3 Vygotsky’s Theory of Socio – Cultural Development :

Socio – cultural theory , as stated by Cole , John – Steiner , Scribner and Souberman , is the belief that every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice : first , on the social level , and later , on the individual level . This means that the skills children learn first are related to interactions with others and they then take that information and use it within themselves .

The main idea of Vygotsky’s theory is that the ways people interact with others and the culture they live in shape their mental abilities . Vygotsky believed that parents , relatives , peers and society all have an important role in forming higher levels of functioning . By saying ” Learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organised , specifically human psychological function ” . Vygotsky contradicted Piaget’s theory that development comes before learning .

Vygotsky’s theory states ” An essential feature of learning is that it creates the zone of proximal development ; i.e. learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with his peers . Once these processes are internalised , they become part of the child’s independent developmental achievement . ”

Three key areas of this theory are as follows

1. Zone of Proximal Development :

* This is the gap between the actual developmental level of a person , as determined by independent problem solving , and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers .

* The zone of proximal development defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation .

* During the 1970s , the psychologists Bruner , Wood and Ross created the term ‘ scaffolding ‘ to add to Vygotsky’s socio – cultural theory

* Scaffolding describes the interaction between a child and an adult , who helps the child finish a task that it could not do alone . Thus , it recognises the role of social interaction on learning and how other people affect the development of children .

 

2. Private Speech :

* This takes place when children talk to themselves . By using private speech , a child’s biological instincts are made into culturally acceptable ways of acting .

* Vygotsky suggested that children spoke to themselves as a way of guiding themselves through an action .

* He said that private speech changes as children age , beginning as external ( speaking out loud ) when they are younger , but later on becoming more internal ( speaking within themselves )

* Through relationships with more capable people , children get information and use that understanding in their private speech .

* Vygotsky thought that private speech showed how children use the support given to them by others to assist their own way of thinking and how they act .

3. Make – Believe Play :

* This is one of the main ways of development during the pre – school years . Children use make – believe play ( like playing ‘ House ‘ ) to test multiple skills and achieve important cultural abilities .

* Vygotsky suggested that , as children take part in made up situations , they learn how to act in agreement with their internal ideas , not just external ones .

* During the play , children put themselves into the adult roles of their culture and practice how they will act in the future .

* Play takes place before development so that children can start to gain the motivation , abilities and attitudes needed for social participation , which can be done only with the help of peers and adults .

* This allows children to practice how they would act in the real world . It provides them with a way to gain the basic skills needed to function in their society before they become adults . However , learning these roles and skills is only done with the help from others in their culture .

Similarities and Differences between the Three Theories :

Some important similarities and differences between these three theories are as follows –

* Piaget and Kohlberg Both of them understood that personal development is influenced by heredity and the social environment . Though Piaget suggested four stages of cognitive development of children , Kohlberg suggested a six stage moral development of an individual throughout his lifespan . While Piaget related cognitive development to biological development , Kohlberg related moral development to socialisation with family , teachers etc.

* Piaget and Vygotsky Both of them said that children build knowledge through experiences in life . However , while Piaget said that children learn from their own adaptive and organising abilities , Vygotsky stated that children learn from social interactions with others through language and culture . Also , while Piaget said that biological development comes before learning starts , Vygotsky stated that socio – cultural learning causes development .

 

CHAPTER EXERCISE

 

1. With reference to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development , match the following .

Stage of Cognitive Development : 1. Sensori – motor    2. Pre – operational    3. Concrete     4. Formal operations

Characteristic :   A. Think logically about objects and events     B. Recognise self as an agent of action and begin to act intentionally     C. Differentiate self from objects     D. Thinking is still egocentric ; has difficulty taking the viewpoints of others 

(1) A-1 , B-2 , C-3 , D-4

(2) A-2 , B-4 , C-1 , D-3

(3) A-3 , B-4 , C-1 , D-2

(4) A-2 , B-4 , C-3 , D-1

2. ‘ Development precedes learning . ‘ is a statement attributed to

( 1 ) Dewey

( 2 ) Vygotsky

( 3 ) Piaget 

( 4 ) Bruner 

 

3. Accommodation , according to Piaget’s cognitive development theory , means

( 1 ) arrangement of perceptual and cognitive information into meaningful patterns

( 2 ) equilibrium between previous knowledge and new knowledge

( 3 ) adjusting to new ways of behaving and thinking by modifying existing cognitive structures

( 4 ) finding the matching between existing cognitive structures and the environmental needs as they arise

 

4. The concept of ‘ Zone of Proximal Development ‘ was given by

( 1 ) Piaget

( 2 ) Vygotsky

( 3 ) Kohlberg

( 4 ) Erikson

 

5. The difference between what the child can do now and what the child can do with adult guidance or that of more capable peers is known as

( 1 ) Area of optimal development

( 2 ) Region of cognitive development

( 3 ) Zone of proximal development

( 4 ) Concept of trivial development

 

6. With reference to Piaget’s key ideas , the realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are turned around or made to look different is defined as 

( 1 ) decentration

( 2 ) classification

( 3 ) class inclusion as

( 4 ) conservation

 

7. With reference to Piaget’s key ideas , the process by which persons take material into their minds from the environment , which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit , is called

( 1 ) fixation

( 2 ) assimilation 

( 3 ) accommodation

( 4 ) adaptation

 

8. In constructivism , as followed by Piaget

( 1 ) education is behaviourist in nature

( 2 ) children participate passively in learning

( 3 ) education is teacher centred

( 4 ) education is child – centred

 

9. In which stage of cognitive development , according to Piaget do children display object permanence ?

( 1 ) Formal operational stage

( 2 ) Concrete operational stage

( 3 ) Pre – operational stage

( 4 ) Sensori motor stage

 

10. When Sonu was 6 months old , he played with a teddy bear , but when his view of the bear was blocked ( i.e. he could not see the bear ) he did not look for it . Now Sonu is 18 months old and searches for the teddy bear when he cannot see it . This shows in Sonu the presence of mistale the quality of

( 1 ) assimilation

( 2 ) adaptation

( 3 ) self – differentiation

( 4 ) object permanence

 

11. A one year old child is likely to learn something in the ‘ Zone of Proximal Development ‘ if

( 1 ) parents or others do not interfere

( 2 ) the task is more difficult than the child can do alone

( 3 ) the child has mastered the skills necessary

( 4 ) the child needs little or no help from anybody

 

12. Which one of the following is not a basic feature of pre – operational period , according to Piaget ?

( 1 ) Transformation

( 2 ) Centration

( 3 ) Conservation 

( 4 ) Decentration

 

13. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development as a follow – up of Piaget’s theory was a result of

( 1 ) observing children in action

( 2 ) creating game – like situations

( 3 ) creating moral dilemmas for people

( 4 ) talking to parents

 

14. According to Kohlberg , at which level is morality externally controlled ?

( 1 ) Pre – conventional level

( 2 ) Conventional level

( 3 ) Post – conventional level

( 4 ) None of the above

 

15. Which one of the following is not a part of a stage proposed by Kohlberg in his Theory of Moral Development ?

( 1 ) Self – interest and reward

( 2 ) Relationships with others

( 3 ) Social contract and social rights

( 4 ) Following universal ethical principles

 

16. Sameera returned the book she took from Malti’s bag because she was afraid of being punished if she was caught . This illustrates Kohlberg’s

( 1 ) pre – conventional level

( 2 ) conventional level

( 3 ) post – conventional level

( 4 ) pre – operational level

17. Children at school follow the code of conduct decided by their teachers . Which level of moral development is shown here ?

( 1 ) Pre conventional

( 2 ) Conventional

( 3 ) Post – conventional

( 4 ) None of the above

 

18. According to Kohlberg , a teacher can instil moral values in children by

( 1 ) giving strict instructions on how to behave

( 2 ) involving them in discussions on moral issues

( 3 ) laying down clearly rules of behaviour

( 4 ) giving importance to religious teachings

 

19. Which of the following is a characteristic of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development ?

( 1 ) Universal sequence of stages across all cultures

( 2 ) Stages proceed in a non – hierarchic manner

( 3 ) Variable sequence of stages

( 4 ) Stages are isolated responses and not a general pattern

 

20. Shishir Mehta does not pay income tax despite legal procedures and expenses . He thinks that he cannot support a corrupt government which wastes millions of rupees in unnecessary expenditure on welfare measures to garner votes . He is probably in which state of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development ?

( 1 ) Law and order morality

( 2 ) Social contract orientation

( 3 ) Universal ethical principle orientation

( 4 ) None of the above

 

21. Vygotsky emphasised the significance of the role played by which of the following factors in the learning of children ?

( 1 ) Social

( 2 ) Hereditary

( 3 ) Moral

( 4 ) Physical

 

22. Which of the following statements may be attributed to Vygotsky ?

( 1 ) Emotions vary from child to child

( 2 ) Culture and language play a significant role in child development

( 3 ) Children think illogically

( 4 ) Children think in different ways from one another

 

23. Vygotsky proposed that child development is

( 1 ) a combination of accommodation and assimilation

( 2 ) a result of social interaction

( 3 ) due to genetic components of a culture

( 4 ) a product of formal education

 

24. Vygotaky’s theory implien

( 1 ) after inifial explanation do not support a child in solving difficult questions

( 2 ) child will leam best In the companry of children having IQ lesser than his/her own

( 3 ) collaborative problem solving

( 4 ) individual assignments to each student

 

25. As a teacher who firmly believes in the social constructivist theory of Lev Vygotsky, which of the following methods would you prefer for assessing your students?

( 1 ) Standardised tests

( 2 ) Fact-based recall questions

( 3 ) Objective multiple-choice type questions

( 4 ) Collaborative projects

 

Previous Years’ Questions

26. “Children actively construct their understanding of the world” is a statement attributed to

( 1 ) Piaget

( 2 ) Pavlov

( 3 ) Kohlberg 

( 4 ) Skinner

 

27. According to Piaget, at which of the following stages does a child begin to think logically about abstract prepositions?

( 1 ) Concrete operational stage (07-11 years)

( 2 ) Formal operational stage (11 years and up)

( 3 ) Sensori-motor stage (Birth-02 years)

( 4 ) Pre-operational stage (02-07 years)

 

28. The stage in which a child begin to think logically about objects and events is known as

( 1 ) Sensori-motor stage

( 2 ) Formal operational stage

( 3 ) Pre-operational-stage

( 4 ) Concrete operational stage

29. Four distinct stages of children’s intellectual development are identified by

( 1 ) Kohlberg

( 3 ) Skinner

( 2 ) Erikson

( 4 ) Piaget

30. Vygotsky emphasised the significance of the role played by which of the following factors in the learning of children?

( 1 ) Social

( 2 ) Hereditary

( 3 ) Moral

( 4 ) Physical

31. According to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, the sensori-motor stage is associated with

( 1 ) concerns about social issues

( 2 ) imitation, memory and mental representation

( 3 ) ability to solve problems in logical fashion

( 4 ) ability to interpret and analyse options

 

32. According to Kohlberg, a teacher can instil moral values in children by

( 1 ) giving strict instructions on ‘how to behave’

( 2 ) giving importance to religious teachings

( 3 ) laying clear rules of behaviour

( 4 ) involving them in discussions on moral issues

 

33. Vygotsky’s theory implies

( 1 ) after initial explanation, do not support a child in solving difficult questions

( 2 ) child will learn best in the company of children having IQ lesser than his/her own

( 3 ) collaborative problem solving

( 4 ) individual assignments to each student

 

34. A teacher wishes to help her students to appreciate multiple views of a situation. She provides her students multiple opportunities to debate on this situation in different groups. According to Vygotsky’s perspective, her students will and develop multiple perspectives of the situation on their own. various views ……..

( 1 ) rationalise

( 2 ) internalise

( 3 ) construct 

( 4 ) operationalise

 

35. Sita has learned to eat rice and dal with her hand. When she is given dal and rice, she mixes rice and dal and starts eating. She has eating rice and dal into her schema for doing things.

( 1 ) initiated

( 3 ) assimilated

( 2 ) accommodated

( 4 ) appropriated

 

36. Which of the following is based on Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory?

( 1 ) Operant conditioning

( 2 ) Reciprocal teaching

( 3 ) Culture-neutral cognitive development

( 4 ) Insight learning

 

37. A teacher says to her class, “As individual assignments are designed to help individual students learn more effectively, all students should complete assignments prescribed without any assistance”. She is referring to which of the following stages of Kohlberg’s moral development?

( 1 ) Conventional stage 4 – Law and order

( 2 ) Post-conventional stage 5- Social contract

( 3 ) Pre-conventional stage 1- Punishment avoidance

( 4 ) Pre-conventional stage 2 – Individualism and exchange

 

38. Cognitive development is supported by

( 1 ) conducting relevant and well-defined tests as frequently as possible

( 2 ) preserving activities that reinforce traditional methods

( 3 ) providing a rich and varied environment

( 4 ) focusing more on individual activities in comparison to collaboration

 

39. In Vygotsky’s theory, which aspect of development gets neglected?

( 1 ) Social

( 2 ) Cultural

( 4 ) Linguistic 

( 3 ) Biological

 

40. Ria does not agree with Rishabh about setting up a class picnic. She thinks that the rules can be revised to suit the majority. This kind of peer disagreement, according to Piaget refers to

( 1 ) heteronomous morality

( 2 ) cognitive immaturity

( 3 ) reaction

( 4 ) morality of cooperation

 

41. Which of the following stages are involved when infants THINK’ with their eyes, ears and hands?

( 1 ) Concrete operational stage

( 2 ) Pre-operational stage

( 3 ) Sensory motor stage

( 4 ) Formal operational stage

 

42. The teacher noticed that Pushpa cannot solve a problem on her own. However, she does so in the presence of adult or peer guidance. This guidance is called

( 1 ) Lateralisation

( 2 ) Pre-operational thinking

( 3 ) Zone of proximal development

( 4 ) Scaffolding

 

43. Fitting new information into existing schemas is known as

( 1 ) accommodation

( 2 ) equilibration

( 3 ) assimilation

( 4 ) organisation  

44. According to Piaget’s theory, which one out of the following will not influence cognitive development?

( 1 ) Language

( 2 ) Social experiences

( 3 ) Maturation

( 4 ) Activity

45. In Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory, which level signifies the absence of morality in the true sense?

(1) Level III

(2) Level IV

(3) Level I 

(4) Level II

 

46. According to the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg’s theory, to which of the following would an turn when making a moral decision?

( 1 ) Personal needs and desires

( 2 ) Individual values

( 3 ) Family expectations

( 4 ) Potential punishment involved individual

47. Which one of the following statements about children would Vygotsky agree with?

( 1 ) Children learn when they are offered lucrative rewards

( 2 ) Children’s thinking can be understood by conducting laboratory experiments on animals

( 3 ) Children are born evil and need to be controlled through punishment

( 4 ) Children learn through interaction with peers and adults

48. When adults adjust to the assistance they provide to facilitate progression of the child from current level of performance to potential level of performance, it is called

( 1 ) Scaffolding

( 2 ) Participatóry learning

( 3 ) Collaborative learning

( 4 ) Proximal development

 

49. According to Piaget, a child between 2 to 7 years is in the stage of cognitive development.

( 1 ) formal operational

( 2 ) concrete operational

( 3 ) sensory motor

( 4 ) pre-operational

 

50. The process of changing the existing schemas to include new information is called

( 1 ) Assimilation

( 2 ) Accommodation

( 3 ) Egocentrism

( 4 ) Adaptation

 

51. ______views children as active builders of knowledge and little scientists who construct their own theories of the world. 

( 1 ) Skinner

( 2 ) Pavlov

( 3 ) Jung 

( 4 ) Piaget

52. Which one of the following is a correctly matched pair?

( 1 ) Concrete operational child : Is able to conserve and classify

( 2 ) Formal operational child :Imitation begins, imaginary play

( 3 ) Infancy : Applies logic and is able to infer

( 4 ) Pre-operational child : Deductive thought

 

 

53. According to Piaget, children’s thinking differs in than in ..

( 1 ) amount, kind

( 2 ) size, correctness

( 3 ) kind, amount

( 4 ) size, type

 

54. Which one of the following is an example of scaffolding?

( 1 ) Giving prompts and cues and asking questions at critical junctures

( 2 ) Giving motivational lectures to students

( 3 ) Offering explanations without encouraging questioning

( 4 ) Offering both material and non-material rewards

 

55. According to Vygotsky, children learn

( 1 ) when reinforcement is offered

( 2 ) by maturation

( 3 ) by imitation

( 4 ) by interacting with adults and peers

 

56. Kohlberg has given

( 1 ) the stages of cognitive development

( 2 ) the stages of physical development

( 3 ) the stages of emotional development

( 4 ) the stages of moral development

 

57. According to Lev Vygotsky, the primary cause of cognitive development is

( 1 ) social interaction

( 2 ) adjustment of mental schemas

( 3 ) stimulus response pairing

( 4 ) equilibration

58. In the context of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, under which stage would the given typical response of a child fall?
“Your parents will be proud of you if you are honest. So you should be honest.’

( 1 ) Social contract orientation

( 2 ) Good girl good boy orientation

( 3 ) Law and order orientation

( 4 ) Punishment – obedience orientation

 

59. According to Jean Piaget, which of the following is necessary for learning?

( 1 ) Observing the behaviour of adults

( 2 ) belief in imminent justice

( 3 ) Reinforcement by teachers and parents

( 4 ) Active exploration of the environment by the learner

60. A 5 years old girl talks to herself while trying to fold a T-shirt. Which of the following statements is correct in the context of the behaviour displayed by the girl?

(1) Jean Piaget would explain this as egocentric speech, while Lev Vygotsky would explain this as the child’s attempt to regulate her actions through private speech

(2) Jean Piaget would explain this as social interaction, while Lev Vygotsky would explain this as an exploration

(3) Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky would explain this as the child’s attempt to imitate her mother

(4) Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky would explain this as egocentric nature of the child’s thoughts

 

 

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